V The History of Dream Interpretation
梦解析的历史
Three approaches to the understanding of dreams have been presented so far. First, the Freudian view, which says that all dreams are expressions of the irrational and asocial nature of man. Second, Jung’s interpretation, which says that dreams are revelations of unconscious wisdom, transcending the individual. Third, the view that dreams express any kind of mental activity and are expressive of our irrational strivings as well as of our reason and morality, that they express both the worst and the best in ourselves.
These three theories are by no means of recent date. A brief survey of the history of dream interpretation shows that the recent controversy about the meaning of dreams contains a discussion which has been going on for at least the past three thousand years.
1. Early Non-psychological Interpretation
of Dreams
The history of dream interpretation begins with attempts to understand the meaning of dreams, not as psychological phenomena but as real experiences of the disembodied soul or as the voice of spirits or ghosts. Thus the Ashanti assume that, if a man dreams of having sexual intercourse with another man’s wife, he will be fined the usual adultery fee, for his soul and hers have had sexual intercourse. The Kiwai Papuans of British New Guinea believe that if a sorcerer manages to catch the soul of somebody in the state of dreaming, the sleeper will never wake up. Another form of the belief that the occurrences of the dream are real is idea that spirits of departed men appear in the dream to exhort us, warn us, or give us other kinds of messages. With the Mohave and Yuma Indians, for instance, the appearance of recently dead relatives in dreams is particularly dreaded. Another concept of the meaning of dreams, closer to the one also to be found in the great cultures of the East, is held by other primitive peoples. Here, the dream is interpreted in a fixed religious and moral frame of reference. Each symbol has its definite meaning, and interpreting the dream consists of translating these fixed symbolic meanings. An example of this kind of interpretation is related by Jackson S. Lincoln in his study of the Navaho Indians:
The Dream: I dreamed of a very large egg made of a hard rocky substance. I cracked open the egg and out flew a young but full-grown eagle. It was indoors, and the eagle flew all around trying to fly out, but it could not get out because the window was shut.
The Interpretation: The eagle belongs to the bird group of the higher spirits which is one of a group of three allied spirits, namely, the wind, the lightning and the birds, all of which live on the top of San Francisco mountain. These spirits can wreak great havoc and destruction if offended. They can also be friendly. The eagle cannot fly out because you must have offended the bird spirit, possibly by walking on its nest, or perhaps your father has committed the offense.
Early Oriental dream interpretation also was not based on a psychological theory of dreams but on the assumption that the dream was a message sent to men by divine powers. The best-known examples of this type of non-psychological dream interpretation are Pharaoh’s dreams reported in the Bible. When Pharaoh had a dream which troubled his spirit, “he sent and called for all the magicians of Egypt and all the wise men thereof: and Pharaoh told them his dream; but there was none that could interpret them unto Pharaoh.” When he requests Joseph to interpret the dream, Joseph answers: “God has shown Pharaoh what he is about to do.” And then he proceeds to interpret the dream. The dream was:
Pharaoh dreamed; and, behold he stood by the river. And, behold, there came up out of the river seven well-favored kine and fat-fleshed; and they fed in a meadow. And, behold, seven other kine came up after them out of the river, ill-favored and lean-fleshed; and stood by the other kine upon the brink of the river. And the ill-favored and lean-fleshed kine did eat up the seven well-favored and fat kine. So Pharaoh awoke. And he slept and dreamed the second time: and, behold, seven ears of corn came up upon one stalk, rank and good. And, behold, seven thin ears and blasted with the east wind sprung up after them. And the seven thin ears devoured the seven rank and full ears. And Pharaoh awoke, and, behold, it was a dream.
Joseph’s interpretation is:
The seven good kine are seven years; and the seven good ears are seven years: the dream is one. And the seven thin and ill-favored kine that came up after them are seven years; and the seven empty ears blasted with the east wind shall be seven years of famine. This is the thing which I have spoken unto Pharaoh: What God is about to do he sheweth unto Pharaoh. Behold, there come seven years of great plenty throughout all the land of Egypt: and there shall arise after them seven years of famine; and all the plenty shall be forgotten in the land of Egypt; and the famine shall consume the land; and the plenty shall not be known in the land by reason of that famine following; for it shall be very grievous. And for that the dream was doubled unto Pharaoh twice; it is because the thing is established by God, and God will shortly bring it to pass. Now therefore let Pharaoh look out a man discreet and wise, and set him over the land of Egypt. Let Pharaoh do this, and let him appoint officers over the land, and take up the fifth part of the land of Egypt in the seven plenteous years. And let them gather all the food of those good years that come, and lay up corn under the hand of Pharaoh, and let them keep food in the cities. And that food shall be for store to the land against the seven years of famine, which shall be in the land of Egypt; that the land perish not through the famine.
The Biblical report says that the dream was looked upon as the vision shown to man by God. However, it is possible to look at Pharaoh’s dream from a psychological viewpoint. He could have known certain factors which would influence the conditions of the fertility of the soil in the coming fourteen years, but this intuitive knowledge might have been available to him only under the condition of sleep. Whether the dream is to be understood in this way or not is a matter of speculation; at any rate, the Biblical report, like many other reports from old Oriental sources, shows that the dream was understood not as something coming from man but as a divine message.
Dreams were supposed to have another kind of predictive function, particularly in Indian and Greek dream interpretation: that of diagnosing illness. Fixed symbols were used to denote certain somatic symptoms. But here, too, as in Pharaoh’s predictive dream, a psychological interpretation is possible. We can assume that in our sleep we have a much finer awareness of certain bodily changes than we have in our waking life, and that this awareness is translated into the image of a dream and thus can serve, to diagnose illness and predict certain somatic occurrences. (The extent to which this is so would have to be demonstrated by the extensive study of dreams of people before the manifest occurrence of illness.)
2. The Psychological Interpretation
of Dreams
In contrast to the non-psychological interpretation of dreams, which takes the dream as the expression of “real” occurrences or as messages from powers outside of man, the psychological interpretation of dreams tries to understand the dream as an expression of the dreamer’s own mind. These two approaches are by no means always separate. On the contrary, until the Middle Ages we find many authors who combine both viewpoints and differentiate between dreams which must be interpreted as religious phenomena and those dreams which need to be understood psychologically. One illustration of this kind of approach is expressed by an Indian author at about the beginning of the Christian era:
There are six kinds of people who see dreams—the man who is of a windy humor, or of a bilious one, or of a phlegmatic one, the man who dreams dreams by the influence of a god, the man who does so by the influence of his own habits, and the man who does so in the way of prognostication. And of those, O king, only the last kind of dreams is true; all the rest are false.
In contrast to the non-psychological interpretation, in which a dream is understood by translating its fixed symbols from their religious context, our Indian source follows the method of all psychological dream interpretation—to relate the dream to the personality of the dreamer. His first three categories are really one, since they refer to temperament—those psychic qualities which are rooted in a constitutionally given somatic basis. He points to a significant connection between temperament and dream content which has hardly found any attention in contemporary dream interpretation, although it is a significant aspect of dream interpretation, as further research will undoubtedly show. To him, dreams sent by a god represent just one type of dream among others. He then differentiates between those dreams which are influenced by the habits of the dreamer and those which represent prognostication. By habits he probably means the dominant drives in a persons character structure; by prognostication, to those dreams which are the expression of superior insight during sleep.
One of the earliest expressions of the view that dreams can be the expression of either our most rational or our most irrational powers is found in Homer. He assigns two gates to dreams: the horny one of truth, the ivory one of error and delusion (referring to the transparent qualities of horn, whereas ivory is not transparent). The ambiguous nature of dream activity could hardly be expressed more clearly and concisely.
Socrates, as quoted in Plato’s Phaedo, held the view that dreams represent the voice of conscience and that it is of the utmost importance to take this voice seriously and to follow it. In an incident shortly before his death, he makes this position very clear:
Cebes said: I am glad, Socrates, that you mentioned the name of Aesop. For it reminds me of a question which has been asked by many, and was asked of me only the day before yesterday by Evenus the poet; he will be sure to ask it again, and therefore if you would like me to have an answer ready for him you may as well tell me what I should say to him; He wanted to know why you, who never before wrote a line of poetry, now that you are in prison are putting Aesop’s fables into verse, and also composing that hymn in honor of Apollo.
Tell him, Cebes, he replied, what is the truth, that I had no idea of rivaling him or his poems; to do so, as I knew would be no easy task. But I wanted to see whether I could purge away a scruple which I felt about the meaning of certain dreams. In the course of my life I have often had intimations in dreams that I should compose music. The same dream came to me sometimes in one form, and sometimes in another, but always saying the same or nearly the same words: “Make and cultivate music,” said the dream. And hitherto I had imagined that this was only intended to exhort and encourage me in the study of philosophy, which has always been the pursuit of my life, and is the noblest and best of music. The dream was bidding me to do what I was already doing, in the same way that the competitor in a race is bidden by the spectators to run when he is already running. But I was not certain of this; for the dream might have meant music in the popular sense of the word, and being under sentence of death, and the festival giving me a respite, I thought that it would be safer for me to satisfy the scruple, and, in obedience to the dream, to compose a few verses before I departed. And first I made a hymn in honor of the god of the festival, and then considering that a poet, if he is really to be a poet, should not only put together words but should invent stories, and that I have no invention, I took some fables of Aesop, which I had ready at hand and knew—they were the first I came upon—and turned them into verse. Tell this to Evenus, Cebes, and bid him be of good cheer; say that I would have him come after me if he be a wise man, and not tarry; and that today I am likely to be going, for the Athenians say that I must.”
Quite in contrast to Socrates’s view, Plato’s theory of dreams is an almost literal anticipation of Freud’s dream theory.
…Certain of the unnecessary pleasures and appetites I conceive to be unlawful; every one appears to have them, but in some persons they are controlled by the laws and by reason, and the better desires prevail over them—either they are wholly banished or they become few and weak; while in the case of others they are stronger, and there are more of them.
Which appetites do you mean?
I mean those which are awake when the reasoning and human and ruling power is asleep; …and there is no conceivable folly or crime—not excepting incest or any other unnatural union, or parricide, or the eating of forbidden food—which at such a time, when he has parted company with all shame and sense, a man may not be ready to commit.
Most true, he said.
But when a man’s pulse is healthy and temperate, and when before going to sleep he has awakened his rational powers, and fed them on noble thoughts and enquiries, collecting himself in meditation; after having first indulged his appetites neither too much nor too little, but just enough to lay them to sleep, and prevent them and their enjoyments and pains from interfering with the higher principle—which he leaves in the solitude of pure abstraction, free to contemplate and aspire to the knowledge of the unknown, whether in past, present or future: when again he has allayed the passionate element, if he has a quarrel against any one—I say, when, after pacifying the two irrational principles, he rouses up the third, which is reason, before he takes his rest, then, as you know, he attains truth most nearly, and is least likely to be the sport of fantastic and lawless visions.
I quite agree.
In saying this I have been running into a digression; but the point which I desire to note is that in all of us, even in good men, there is a lawless wild-beast nature, which peers out in sleep. Pray, consider whether I am right, and you agree with me.
Yes, I agree.
While Plato, like Freud, looks at dreams as the expression of the irrational animal in us, he makes one qualification which restricts this interpretation to some extent. He assumes that if the sleeper falls asleep in a mood of quiet and inner peace, his dreams will be least irrational. This view, however, must not be confused with the dualistic interpretation that dreams are the expression of both our irrational and our rational nature; to Plato they are essentially the expression of the savage and terrible in us and only less so in the person who has achieved the greatest maturity and wisdom. Aristotle’s view on dreams stresses their rational nature. He assumes that during our sleep we are capable of more refined observations of subtle, bodily occurrences and furthermore that we are occupied with plans and principles of action and visualize those more clearly than in the daytime. He does not assume, however, that all dreams are meaningful but that many are accidents and do not deserve to be credited with predictive functions. The following passage from On Divination shows his position:
…Well then, the dreams in question must be regarded either as causes, or as tokens, of the events, or else as coincidences; either as all, or some, of these, or as one only. I use the word “cause” in the sense in which the moon is [the cause] of an eclipse of the sun, or in which fatigue is [a cause] of fever; “token” [in the sense in which] the entrance of a star [into the shadow] is a token of the eclipse, or [in which] roughness of the tongue [is a token] of fever; while by “coincidence” I mean, for example, the occurrence of an eclipse of the sun while some one is taking a walk; for the walking is neither a token nor a cause of the eclipse, nor the eclipse [a cause or token] of the walking. For this reason no coincidence takes place according to a universal or general rule. Are we then to say that some dreams are causes, other tokens, e.g. of events taking place in the bodily organism? At all events, even scientific physicians tell us that one should pay diligent attention to dreams, and to hold this view is reasonable also for those who are not practitioners, but speculative philosophers. For the movements which occur in the daytime [within the body] are, unless very great and violent, lost sight of in contrast with the waking movements, which are more impressive. In sleep the opposite takes place, for then even trifling movements seem considerable. This is plain in what often happens during sleep; for example, dreamers fancy that they are affected by thunder and lightning, when in fact there are only faint ringings in their ears; or that they are enjoying honey or other sweet savors, when only a tiny drop of phlegm is flowing down [the oesophagus]; or that they are walking through fire, and feeling intense heat, when there is only a slight warmth affecting certain parts of the body. When they are awakened, these things appear to them in this their true character. But since the beginnings of all events are small, so, it is clear, are those also of the diseases or other affections about to occur in our bodies. In conclusion, it is manifest that these beginnings must be more evident in sleeping than in waking moments.
Nay, indeed, it is not improbable that some of the presentations which come before the mind in sleep may even be causes of the actions cognate to each of them. For as when we are about to act [in waking hours], or are engaged in any course of action, or have already performed certain actions, we often find ourselves concerned with these actions, or performing them, in a vivid dream; the cause whereof is that the dream-movement has had a way paved for it from the original movements set up in the daytime; exactly so, but conversely, it must happen that the movements set up first in sleep should also prove to be starting-points of actions to be performed in the daytime, since the recurrence by day of the thought of these actions also has had its way paved for it in the images before the mind at night. Thus then it is quite conceivable that some dreams may be tokens and causes [of future events].
Most [so-called prophetic] dreams are, however, to be classed as mere coincidences, especially all such as are extravagant, and those in the fulfillment of which the dreamers have no initiative, such as in the case of a sea-fight, or of things taking place far away. As regards these it is natural that the fact should stand as it does whenever a person, on mentioning something, finds the very thing mentioned come to pass. Why, indeed, should this not happen also in sleep? The probability is, rather, that many such things should happen. As, then, one’s mentioning a particular person is neither token nor cause of this person’s presenting himself, so, in the parallel instance, the dream is, to him who has seen it, neither token nor cause of its [so-called] fulfillment, but a mere coincidence. Hence the fact that many dreams have no “fulfillment,” for coincidences do not occur according to any universal or general law.
Roman dream theory follows pretty much the principles developed in Greece but it does not always attain the clarity and depth of insight that we find with Plato and Aristotle. Lucretius, in De Rerum Natura, comes close to Freud’s theory of wish-fulfillment although without Freud’s emphasis on the irrational nature of these wishes. He states that our dreams deal with things we are interested in during the daytime or with bodily needs which are satisfied in the dream:
And whatever be the pursuit to which one clings with devotion, whatever the things on which we have been occupied much in the past, the mind being thus more intent upon that pursuit, it is generally the same things that we seem to encounter in dreams: pleaders to plead their cause and collate laws, generals to contend and engage battle, sailors to fight out their war already begun with the winds, I myself to ply my own task, always seeking the nature of things and when found setting it forth in our own language. Thus too all other pursuits and arts usually seem in sleep to hold fast men’s minds with their delusions. And whenever men have given constant attention to the games through many days on end, we usually see that when they have now ceased to observe all this with their senses, yet certain passages are left open in the mind by which the images of these things can come in. For many days then these same things are moving before their eyes, so that even while awake they seem to perceive dancers swaying their supple limbs, to hear in their ears the lyre’s rippling tune and its speaking strings, to behold the same assemblage and with it the diverse glories of the stage in their brightness. Of so great import are devotion and pleasure, and what those things are which not men only but indeed all creatures are in the habit of practicing.
The most systematic theory of dream interpretation is given by Artemidorus in the second century A.D. in his book on the interpretation of dreams, a work which had great influence on medieval views. According to him, there are five kinds of dreams that have different qualities:
The first is a Dream: the second a Vision: the third an Oracle: the fourth a Phantasy or vain Imagination: the fifth an Apparition.
That is called a Dream which discovers the truth under a hidden figure; as when Joseph interpreted Pharaoh’s Dream of the seven lean kine that should devour the seven fat ones, and the same of the ears of corn, etc.
A Vision is this: When a man really sees awake, what he did asleep; as it happened to Vespatian, when he saw the Surgeon that drew out Hero’s tooth.
An Oracle is a revelation or advertisement made to us in our sleep by some Angel, or other Saint, to perform God’s will according to their information; as it happened to Joseph, the husband of the Holy Virgin, and the Three Wise Men.
The Phantasy, or vain Imagination, happens in that instant when the affections are so vehement that they ascend up to the brain during our sleep, and meet with the more watchful spirits; thus what the thoughts are employed about in the day, we fancy in the night; so a lover, who in the daytime thinks on his fair one, in the night when asleep meets with the same thoughts. It happens also, that he that fasts all day, dreams at night that he is feeding; or if thirsty in the daytime, in the nighttime he dreams of drinking, and is very much delighted with it. And the miser and userer dreams of bags of money, nay will discourse of them in their sleep.
An Apparition is no other than a nocturnal Vision that presents itself to weak infants and ancient men, who fancy they see chimeras approaching to intimidate or offend them.
We see that Artemidorus assumes what he calls a “dream” to be an insight expressed in symbolic language. To him, Pharaoh’s dream is not a vision sent to him by God but the symbolic expression of his own rational insight. He holds that there are dreams in which an angel reveals God’s will to us but to these he gives the name “oracle.” The dream that is the expression of our irrational desires is recognized by him as one of the various kinds of dreams, and he calls that dream to which Plato and Freud’s interpretation applies the fantasy, or vain Imagination. Anxiety dreams, cared apparitions, are explained as caused by the peculiar conditions of weak infants and old men. Artemidorus states explicitly the significant principle that “the rules of dreaming are not general and therefore cannot satisfy all persons, seeing they often, according to times and persons, admit of varied interpretations.”
Our picture of Roman dream interpretation would be incomplete without hearing the voice of complete skepticism, that of Cicero. In his poem On Divination he writes:
Dreams are not entitled to any credit or respect whatever.
If, then, dreams do not come from God, and if there are no objects in nature with which they have a necessary sympathy and connection, and if it is impossible by experiments and observations to arrive at a sure interpretation of them, the consequence is that dreams are not entitled to any credit or respect whatever. …
Let us reject, therefore, this divination of dreams, as well as all other kinds. For, to speak truly, that superstition has extended itself through all nations, and has oppressed the intellectual energies of all men, and has betrayed them into endless imbecilities.
Dating back to about the same time an elaborate theory of dreams is reported in the Talmud. The role that dream interpretation played in Jerusalem around the time of Christ can be recognized from the statement in the Talmud that there were twenty-four dream interpreters in Jerusalem. Rabbi Chisda said: “Each dream has meaning except one which is stimulated by fasting. Furthermore, the dream which is not interpreted is like a letter which is not read.” This statement formulates the principles that Freud announced in similar words almost two thousand years later: that all dreams without exception are meaningful and that dreams are important communications to ourselves, the interpretation of which we cannot afford to ignore. Rabbi Chisda adds a significant qualification to the general principle of the psychological interpretation of dreams by pointing to those caused by fasting. In more general terms, his qualification is that those dreams which are caused by strong physical somatic stimuli are the one exception to the general rule of psychic determinism in dreams.
The Talmudic authors assumed that certain types of dreams were predictive. Rabbi Jochanan said, “Three kinds of dreams come true: the dream in the morning, the dream which someone has about one, and the dream which is interpreted by another dream. According to others, the repetitive dream also is among those which come true.”
Although no reasons are given for this assumption, they are not too difficult to discover. The sleep in the morning is less deep than that in the early night, and the sleeper is closer to his waking consciousness. Rabbi Jochanan apparently assumes that in this state of sleep rational judgment enters into the dream process and permits us to have clearer insight into forces operating in us or in others, and thus to predict events. The assumption that a dream which someone else has about us comes true seems to be based on the idea that others often have better judgment about us than we have ourselves, and that in the state of sleep their insight into us is particularly sharp and therefore has predictive value. The reasoning behind the theory about that dream coming true which is interpreted by another dream is probably that, in the state of sleep, we are capable of intuitive insight which permits us to interpret a dream by dreaming its “interpretation.” Recent experiments with dream interpretation under hypnosis seem to confirm this view. People put under hypnosis and asked to interpret various dreams gave without hesitation a meaningful interpretation of the symbolic language employed by the dream. When not under hypnosis, the same dream seemed to them completely meaningless. These experiments tend to show that we all possess the gift to understand symbolic language, but that this knowledge becomes operative only in the state of disassociation brought about by hypnosis. Our Talmudic author holds that the same holds true for the state of sleep, that when asleep we understand the meaning of another dream and can interpret it correctly. There is little doubt that the repetitive dream has a particular significance. Many contemporary psychologists observe that a dream which a person has repeatedly is expressive of the important themes of his life. Inasmuch as a person tends to act again and again according to such a leitmotif, it may be said that such repeated dreams also often predict future events in the person’s life.
Of particular interest is the Talmudic interpretation of symbols. It follows Freudian lines as, for instance, in the interpretation of a dream that someone “waters an olive tree with olive oil.” The interpretation is that this dream symbolizes incest. In a dream where the dreamer sees his eyes kissing each other, the symbol means sexual intercourse with his sister. But while symbols not sexual in themselves are interpreted as having sexual meaning, symbols directly sexual are interpreted as meaning something non-sexual. Thus our Talmudic source says that the dream in which someone has intercourse with his mother means that he can hope to have a great deal of wisdom. Or that one who dreams that he had sexual relations with a married woman can be sure of his own salvation. The Talmudic interpretation is apparently based on the idea that a symbol always stands for something else and, therefore, a symbol which in itself is sexual must mean something different from its manifest meaning. However, an interesting qualification is made. The man who dreams about intercourse with a married woman can be sure of his salvation only if he has not known the woman of his dream before, and if he had no sexual desire when he fell asleep. We see here how much importance the Talmudic view gives to the state of mind of the dreamer before he fell asleep. If he had sexual desires or even if he had known only casually the woman about whom he has the dream, we must expect that the general rule that a symbol stands for something else is not valid and that the sexual symbolism is expressive of a sexual wish.
Medieval dream interpretation follows pretty much the line we have seen in classic antiquity. An author of the fourth century, Synesius of Cyrene, makes one of the most precise and beautiful statements of the theory that dreams stem from the heightened capacity of insight during sleep.
If dreams prophesy the future, if visions which present themselves to the mind during sleep afford some indicia whereby to divine future things—dreams will be at the same time true and obscure, and even in their obscurity the truth will reside. “The gods with a thick veil have covered human life.” [Hesiod]
I am not surprised that some have owed to a sleep the discovery of a treasure; and that one may have gone to sleep very ignorant, and after having had in a dream a conversation with the Muses, awakened an able poet, which has happened in my time to some, and in which there is nothing strange. I do not speak of those who have had, in their sleep, the revelation of a danger which threatened them, or the knowledge of a remedy that would cure them. But when sleep opens the way to the most perfect inspections of true things to the soul which previously had not desired these inspections, nor thought concerning the ascent to intellect and arouses it to pass beyond nature and reunite itself to the intelligible sphere from which it has wandered so far that it does not know even from whence it came, this, I say, is most marvelous and obscure.
If one thinks it extraordinary that the soul may thus ascend to the superior region, and does not believe that the way to this felicitous union lies through the imagination let him hear the sacred oracles when they speak about the different roads which lead to the higher sphere. After enumerating the various subsidia which help the ascent of the soul by arousing and developing its powers, they say: By lessons some are enlightened, By sleep others are inspired. (Sibylline Oracles)
You see the distinction which the oracle establishes: upon the one side, inspiration; upon the other, study; the former, it says, is instruction whilst one is awake, the latter when asleep. Whilst awake, it is always a man who is the instructor: but when asleep, it is from God that the knowledge comes. …
Thanks to its character, divination by dreams is placed within the reach of all: plain and without artifice, it is pre-eminently rational; holy, because it does not make use of young and old, rich and poor, private citizens violent methods, it can be exercised anywhere: it dispenses with fountain, rock and gulf, and it thus is that which is truly divine. To practice it there is no need of neglecting any of our occupations, or to rob our business for a single moment… No one is advised to quit his work and go to sleep, especially to have dreams. But as the body cannot resist prolonged night-watches, the time that nature has ordained for us to consecrate to repose brings us, with sleep, an accessory more precious than sleep itself: that natural necessity becomes a source of enjoyment and we do not sleep merely to live, but to learn to live well…
But in divination by dreams, each of us is in himself his proper instrument; whatever we may do, we cannot separate ourselves from our oracle: it dwells with us; it follows us everywhere, in our journeys, in war, in public life, agricultural pursuits, in commercial enterprises. The laws of a jealous Republic do not interdict that divination; if they did they could do nothing: because how can the offense be proven. What harm is there in sleeping? No tyrant is able to carry out an edict against dreams, still less proscribe sleep in his dominions; that would be at once folly to command the impossible, and an impiety to put himself in opposition to the desires of nature and God.
Then let us all deliver ourselves to the interpretation of dreams, men and women, and magistrates, inhabitants of the town and of the country, artisans and orators. There is not any privileged, neither by sex, neither by age, nor fortune or profession. Sleep offers itself to all: it is an oracle always ready to be our infallible and silent counselor; in these mysteries of a new species each is at the same time priest and initiate. It, as well as divination, announces to us the joys to come, and through the anticipated happiness which it procures for us, it gives to our pleasures a longer duration; and it warns us to the misfortunes that threaten us, so that we may be put on our guard. The charming promises of hope so dear to man, the farseeing calculations of fear, all come to us through dreams. Nothing is more qualified in its effect to nourish hope in us; this good, so great and so precious that without it we could not be able, as said the most illustrious Sophists, to support life…
Similar to the point of view held by Synesius are the dream theories of the Jewish Aristotelians in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The greatest of them, Maimonides, states that dreams, like prophecy, are due to the action of the imaginative faculty during sleep. Whether the dreamer himself is able to separate the rational part of the dream from its symbolic veil or whether he needs the help of a dream interpreter depends on the degree to which the insight is veiled in symbols and on the strength of his reasoning power.
Thomas Aquinas differentiates between four kinds of dreams:
As stated above divination is superstitious and unlawful when it is based on a false opinion. Wherefore we must consider what is true in the matter of foreknowing the future from dreams. Now dreams are sometimes the cause of future occurrences; for instance, when a person’s mind becomes anxious through what it has seen in a dream and is thereby led to do something or avoid something: while sometimes dreams are signs of future happenings, in so far as they are referable to some common cause of both dreams and future occurrences, and in this way the future is frequently known from dreams. We must, then, consider what is the cause of dreams, and whether it can be the cause of future occurrences, or be cognizant of them.
Accordingly it is to be observed that the cause of dreams is sometimes in us and sometimes outside us. The inward cause of dreams is twofold: one regards the soul, in so far as those things which have occupied a man’s thoughts and affections while awake recur to his imagination while asleep. A suchlike cause of dreams is not a cause of future occurrences, so that dreams of this kind are related accidentally to future occurrences, and if at any time they concur it will be by chance. But sometimes the inward cause of dreams regards the body: because the inward disposition of the body leads to the formation of a movement in the imagination consistent with that disposition; thus a man in whom there is abundance of cold humors dreams that he is in the water or snow: and for this reason physicians say that we should take note of dreams in order to discover internal dispositions.
In like manner the outward cause of dreams is twofold, corporal and spiritual. It is corporal in so far as the sleeper’s imagination is affected either by the surrounding air, or through an impression of a heavenly body, so that certain images appear to the sleeper, in keeping with the disposition of the heavenly bodies. The spiritual cause is sometimes referable to God, who reveals certain things to men in their dreams by the ministry of the angels, according to Num. xii. 6, If there be among you a prophet of the Lord, I will appear to him in a vision, or I will speak to him in a dream. Sometimes, however, it is due to the action of the demons that certain images appear to persons in their sleep, and by this means they, at times, reveal certain future things to those who have entered into an unlawful compact with them.
Accordingly we must say that there is no unlawful divination in making use of dreams for the foreknowledge of the future, so long as those dreams are due to divine revelation, or to some natural cause inward or outward, and so far as the efficacy of that cause extends. But it will be an unlawful and superstitious divination if it be caused by a revelation of the demons, with whom a compact has been made, whether explicit, through their being invoked for the purpose, or implicit, through the divination extending beyond its possible limits.
This suffices for the Replies to the Objections.
Aquinas, like Artemidorus and others, believed that some dreams are sent by God. Those dreams which he interprets as stemming from the dreamer’s soul are not understood, as Maimonides maintained, as being the expression of the highest rational faculty but as the dreamer’s imagination occupied with the same wishes and interests as during the day. It is interesting that, like Indian and Greek thinkers, Aquinas holds that certain somatic processes are indicated by the symbols of the dream and that internal somatic dispositions can be recognized by dream interpretation.
Modern dream interpretation (since the seventeenth century) is essentially a variation on the theories of antiquity and those of the Middle Ages, although certain new trends of thought make their appearance.
While the theory that dreams can be the expression of somatic dispositions had been held by several older authors, Hobbes assumes that all dreams are the result of somatic stimuli, a view widely held up to the present and often used as refutation against Freud:
And seeing dreams are caused by the distemper of some of the inward parts of the body; divers distempers must needs cause different dreams. And hence it is, that lying cold breedeth dreams of fear, and raiseth the thought and image of some fearful object (the motion from the brain to the inner parts, and from the inner parts to the brain being reciprocal:) and that, as anger causeth heat in some parts of the body, when we are awake, so when we sleep, the overheating of the same parts causeth anger, and raiseth up in the brain the imagination of an enemy. In the same manner, as natural kindness, when we are awake, causeth desire, and desire makes heat in certain other parts of the body; so also too much heat in those parts, while we sleep, raiseth in the brain an imagination of some kindness shown. In sum, our dreams are the reverse of our waking imaginations; the motion when we are awake, beginning at one end; and when we dream, at another.
It is not surprising to find that the philosophers of the Enlightenment were skeptical about all claims that dreams were sent by God or could be used for purposes of divination. Voltaire denounces the idea that dreams predict and prophesy as superstitious nonsense. But in spite of this view he holds that, while dreams often are the expression of somatic stimuli and of excesses “in the passions of the soul,” we also often make use of our highest rational faculties during sleep:
We must acknowledge with Petronius: quidquid luce, tenebris agit. I have known advocates who have pleaded in dreams, mathematicians who have sought to solve problems; and poets who have composed verses. I have made some myself, which are very passable. It is therefore incontestable that consecutive ideas occur in sleep, as well as when we are awake, which ideas as certainly come in spite of us. We think while sleeping, as we move in our beds, without our will having anything to do either in the motive or the thought. Your Father Malebranche is right in asserting that we are not able to give ourselves ideas. For why are we to be masters of them, when waking, more than during sleep?
Kant’s theory of dreams is similar to Voltaire’s. He, too, believed that we have no visions and holy inspirations in dreams. The basis for dreams is “simply caused by disordered stomach.” But he also states that:
I rather suppose, that… ideas in sleep may be clearer and broader than even the clearest in the waking state. This is to be expected of such an active being as the soul when the external senses are so completely at rest. For man, at such times, is not sensible of his body. When he wakes up, his body is not associated with the ideas of his sleep, so that it cannot be a means of recalling this former state of thought to consciousness in such a way as to make it appear to belong to one and the same person. A confirmation of my idea of sound sleep is found in the activity of some who walk in their sleep, and who, in such a state, betray more intelligence than usual, although in waking up they do not remember anything.
Dreams, however, i.e., the ideas that one remembers on waking up, do not belong here. For then man does not wholly sleep; he perceives to a certain degree clearly and weaves the actions of his spirit into the impressions of the external senses. He therefore remembers them in part afterwards, but finds in them only wild and absurd chimeras, since ideas of phantasy and of external sensation are intermingled in them.
Goethe too emphasizes our increased rational capacity during sleep. When Eckermann told him of a rather poetic dream he had, Goethe stated:
We see… that the muses visit you even in sleep, and indeed with particular favor; for you must confess that it would be difficult for you to invent anything so peculiar and pretty in your waking moments.
Not only is our power of imagination greater in our sleep than in our waking life, but the innate strivings for health and happiness often assert themselves in our sleep more forcefully than when we are awake:
Human nature possesses wonderful powers, and has something good in readiness for us when we least hope for it. There have been times in my life when I have fallen asleep in tears; but in my dreams the most charming forms have come to console and to cheer me, and I have risen the next morning fresh and joyful.
One of the most beautiful and concise statements on the superior rational character of our mental process in sleep is made by Emerson:
Dreams have a poetic integrity and truth. This limbo and dust-hole of thought is presided over by a certain reason, too. Their extravagance from nature is yet within a higher nature. They seem to us to suggest an abundance and fluency of thought not familiar to the waking experience. They pique us by independence of us, yet we know ourselves in this mad crowd, and owe to dreams a kind of divination and wisdom. My dreams are not me; they are not Nature, or the Not-me; they are both. They have a double consciousness, at once sub- and ob-jective. We call the phantoms that rise, the creation of our fancy, but they act like mutineers, and fire on their commander; showing that every act, every thought, every cause, is bipolar, and in the act is contained the counteraction. If I strike, I am struck; if I chase, I am pursued.
Wise and sometimes terrible hints shall in them be thrown to the man out of a quite unknown intelligence. He shall be startled two or three times in his life by the justice as well as the significance of this phantasmagoria. Once or twice the conscious fetters shall seem to be unlocked, and a freer utterance attained. A prophetic character in all ages has haunted them. They are the maturation often of opinions not consciously carried out to statements, but whereof we already possessed the elements. Thus, when awake, I know the character of Rupert, but do not think what he may do. In dreams I see him engaged in certain actions which seem preposterous, out of all fitness. He is hostile, he is cruel, he is frightful, he is a poltroon. It turns out prophecy a year later. But it was already in my mind as character, and the sibyl dreams merely embodied it in fact. Why then should not symptoms, auguries, forebodings be, as one said, the meanings of the spirit?
We are led by this experience into the high region of Cause and acquainted with the identity of every unlikeseeming effect. We learn that actions whose turpitude is very differently reputed proceed from one and the same affections. Sleep takes off the costume of circumstance, arms us with terrible freedom, so that every will rushes to a deed. A skillful man reads his dreams for his self-knowledge; yet not the details, but the quality. What part does he play in them—a cheerful, manly part, or a poor-driveling part? However monstrous and grotesque their apparitions, they have a substantial truth. The same remark may be extended to the omens and coincidences which may have astonished us. Of all it is true that the reason of them is always latent in the individual. Goethe said: “These whimsical pictures, inasmuch as they originate from us, may well have an analogy with our whole life and fate.
Emerson’s statement is significant because he recognizes more clearly than anyone had recognized before him the connection between character and dream. Our own character is reflected in dreams and particularly those aspects of it which do not appear in our manifest behavior. So is the character of others. When awake we mostly see only their behavior and actions. We recognize in our dreams the hidden forces underlying their behavior and dreams, and therefore, will often be able to predict future actions.
I conclude this brief review of the history of dream interpretation with one of the most original and interesting theories about dreams, that of Henri Bergson. Like Nietzsche, Bergson believes that various somatic stimuli give rise to the process of dreaming; but, unlike Nietzsche, he does not believe that these stimuli are to be interpreted by the dominant cravings and passions in us, but that we select from our vast and almost unlimited store of memories those which fit into these somatic stimuli and that these forgotten memories form the contents of the dream. Bergson’s theory of memory comes very close to Freud’s. He, too, assumes that we forget nothing and that what we remember is only a small segment of the totality of our memory. He says:
Our memories, at any given moment, form a solid whole, a pyramid, so to speak, whose point is inserted precisely into our present action. But behind the memories which are concerned in our present occupation and are revealed by means of it, there are others, thousands of others, stored below the scene illuminated by consciousness. Yes, I believe indeed that all our past life is there, preserved even to the most infinitesimal details, and that we forget nothing, and that all that we have felt, perceived, thought, willed, from the first awakening of our consciousness, survives indestructibly. But the memories which are preserved in these obscure depths are there in the state of invisible phantoms. They aspire, perhaps, to the light, but they do not even try to rise to it; they know that it is impossible and that I, as a living and acting being, have something else to do than to occupy myself with them. But suppose that, at a given moment, I become disinterested in the present situation, in the present action—in short, in all which previously had fixed and guided my memory; suppose, in other words, that I am asleep. Then these memories, perceiving that I have taken away the obstacle, have raised the trapdoor which has kept them beneath the floor of consciousness, arise from the depths; they rise, they move, they perform in the night of unconsciousness a great dance macabre. They rush together to the door which has been left ajar. They all want to get through. But they cannot; there are too many of them. From the multitudes which are called, which will be chosen? It is not hard to say. Formerly when I was awake, the memories which forced their way were those which could involve claims of relationship with the present situation, with what I saw and heard around me. Now it is more vague images which occupy my sight, more indecisive sounds which affect my ear, more indistinct touches which are distributed over the surface of my body, but there are also the more numerous sensations which arise from the deepest parts of the organism. So, then, among the phantom memories which aspire to fill themselves with color, with sonority, in short with materiality, the only ones that succeed are those which can assimilate themselves with the color-dust that we perceive, the external and internal sensations that we catch, etc., and which, besides, respond to the affective tone of our general sensibility. When this union is effected between the memory and the sensation, we have a dream. …
Bergson stresses the difference between the waking and the sleeping state:
You ask me what it is that I do when I dream? I will tell you what you do when you are awake. You take me, the me of dreams, me the totality of your past, and you force me, by making me smaller and smaller, to fit into the little circle that you trace around your present action. That is what it is to be awake. That is what it is to live the normal psychical life. It is to battle. It is to will. As for the dream, have you really any need that I should explain it? It is the state into which you naturally fall when you let yourself go, when you no longer have the power to concentrate yourself upon a single point, when you have ceased to will. What needs much more to be explained is the marvelous mechanism by which at any moment your will obtains instantly, and almost unconsciously, the concentration of all that you have within you upon one and the same point, the point that interests you. But to explain this is the task of normal psychology, of the psychology of waking, for willing and waking are one and the same thing.
Bergson’s emphasis on the nature of the waking as against that of the sleeping state is a point of view which underlies my own theory of dreams. The difference, however, is that Bergson assumes that in sleep we are simply disinterested and that somatic stimuli are the only factors we are interested in; while I assume that we are intensely interested in our own wishes, fears and insights although not in the task of mastering reality.
Even this brief sketch of the history of dream interpretation shows that in this, as in so many other areas of the science of man, we have little reason to consider our knowledge superior to that of the great cultures of the past. There are, however, some discoveries which are not to be found in any of the older theories: Freud’s principle of free association as the key to the understanding of dreams and his insight into the nature of the “dream-work,” particularly into such mechanisms as condensation and displacement. Even one who has been studying dreams for many years can hardly cease to be surprised when he sees how associations, coming from many different and often remote memories and experiences, fit together and make it possible to uncover the picture of the true thoughts of the sleeper underneath the manifest dream which is often unintelligible or deceptive.
As to the contents of the old dream theories, suffice it to say in summing up that one of the two views that dreams are either manifestations of our animal nature—the gate of delusion—or of our most rational powers—the gate of truth—is held by most students of dreams. Some of them believe, like Freud, that all dreams are of an irrational nature; others, like Jung, that they are all revelations of higher wisdom. But many students share the view expressed throughout this book—that dreams partake of both, of our irrational and of our rational nature, and that it is the aim of the art of dream interpretation to understand when our better self and when our animal nature makes itself heard in the dream.