18. Education in India

So far, you have been reading about different aspects of culture, such as art, architecture, religion and science.Another important aspect of our culture is education. But what is education? You may say that it means learning something in school or from books. This is partially true. Education is a learning experience. But learning takes place at all times in one’s life. However, whereas some other learning experiences could be of a random or accidental nature, an educational experience is usually a deliberate and pre-designed programme with the purpose of affecting certain pre-determined behavioural changes in an individual. You are going through such an experience right now as you proceed through various lessons of this course. But have you ever wondered how education is related to culture? Culture is the sum total of the accumulated experiences and achievements of previous generations inherited by succeeding generations as members of society. The structured process of passing on this collective pool of experiences and achievements may be called education. Hence education is not only a means of passing on cultural beliefs and ideas, but it is also shaped by cultural beliefs since it is a product of culture. The system of education thus changes along with changes in culture. In this lesson we shall find out about the evolution of the systems of education that prevailed in India since the most ancient times because society considered the education of its members as one of its primary obligation. 

18.1 EDUCATION IN THE ANCIENT PERIOD 

18.1.1 Vedic Period 

Learning in ancient India was imparted by the teachers called Gurus to the pupils who gathered around them and came to live with them in their house as members of the family. Such a place was called Gurukul. The Gurukul functioned as a domestic school, an ashrama, where the children’s learning was developed by the Guru who gave personal instruction as well as attention to the students. Education was primarily the privilege of the upper castes. Learning was an intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil called the Guru- Shishya Parampara. The process of learning generally began with a religious ceremony, ‘Upanayana’ (sacred thread ceremony). Education was normally imparted orally. It included memorization of texts like Vedas and Dharmashastras, fully or partially. Later subjects like Grammar, Logic, and Metaphysics came to be taught and studied. The Maitrayani Upanishad teaches us that the supreme knowledge (gyan) is the result of learning (vidya), reflection (chintan) and austerity (tapas). Through introspection (atma vishleshana) one was to attain goodness (Satva), purity of mind and satisfaction of the soul in stages. During this time self education was regarded as the proper method of attaining the highest knowledge. The best example of this can be found in the Taitteriya Upanishad where Bhrgu, son of Varuna, approaches his father and asks him to teach what is Brahmana. The father tells him to find this out through meditation. 

18.1.2 Mauryan Period 

During the Mauryan and the post-Mauryan periods, the Indian society went through a phase of intensive change. With the growth of urban centres and trade, the mercantile community came to acquire an important position. As a result, the guilds of the merchants began to play an active role in providing education. They became centres of technical education and fostered the knowledge of mining, metallurgy, carpentry, weaving and dyeing. There were new formulations in building and architecture. With the emergence of city life, new architectural forms evolved. The guilds also gave patronage to astronomy, the study of the position of stars, to help them in ocean navigation. The astronomers and cosmologists began a debate on “time” (kala). This helped in the development of a sharp sense of “time” (kala) in comparison to the past. Medical knowledge began to be systemised as Ayurveda. The elements formed the basis for the Indian medical system. A right combination of the three was necessary for a healthy body. Knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs and their usage reached a very advanced stage. ‘Charaka’ became famous for medicine and ‘Sushruta’ for surgery. ‘Charak Samhita’ written by Charaka was an authentic and exhaustive work on medicines. 

You must have heard of Chanakya, who was a renowned philosopher, scholar and teacher. His most famous work is ‘Arthashastra’. The currcula of studies mentioned in the Arthashastra refers primarily to the education of princes. After Upanayana the prince learnt the four Vedas and the Vedic study included a study of sciences. They also learnt logic, economics and politics. Education of those times was primarily life skills based which is so different from what education is today. The curricula in the Ramayana for the princes was Dhanurveda, Nitishastra, Siksha (lore) of elephants and chariots, Alekhya and Lekhya (Painting and writing), Langhana (jumping) and Tairana (swimming). 

18.1.3 Gupta Period 

In the Gupta period, the Jain and Buddhist systems of education assumed a different dimension. Buddhist monasteries admitted students for ten years. Learning began with the oral method. Later they shifted to the reading of literary texts. The monasteries had libraries. Important manuscripts were copied and stored. Students from other countries like China and South-East Asia came to the Buddhist monasteries for education. The monasteries were normally maintained by grants from kings and the rich mercantile class. They attracted scholars from far and near. Fa-Hien also spent several years in the monastery at Pataliputra, studying Buddhist religious books. Besides Pataliputra, there were other centres of learning like Vanarasi, Mathura, Ujjain and Nasik. Nalanda University was known all over Asia for its high standards of scholarship. The subjects taught included Vedanta, philosophy, study of the Puranas, epics, grammar, logic, astronomy, philosophy, medicine etc. Sanskrit, the court language was the medium of instruction.

The Jains used Sanskrit literature like ‘Adipurana’and‘Yashatilaka’foreducationalpurposesintheearlierphase.Buttomake education more popular, the medium was changed to Prakrit and other regional languages like Tamil, Kannada and so on. Books in the Jain and Buddhist libraries were written on palm leaves that were tied together and were known as “granthas”. Slowly, Jainism and Buddhism lost royal patronage and their monasteries started declining as centres of education and learning. The ‘mathas’ supported by Brahmins were institutions parallel to Jain and Buddhist monasteries. The ‘mathas’ functioned like ashramas for educational purposes. 

18.1.4 Post Gupta Period 

Art and education made great strides in the reign of Harsha. He encouraged education at all levels; education was given in temples and monastries and higher education in universities of Taxila, Ujjain, Gaya and Nalanda. In Nalanda, Hiuen Tsang spent several years studying Buddhists sculptures. Shilabhadra, a renowned scholar was its head. 

In the seventh and eighth centuries, ‘ghatikas’, or colleges attached to the temples emerged as new centres of learning. The ‘ghatikas’, provided Brahmanical education. The medium of instruction was Sanskrit. Entry to these temple colleges was open only to the upper castes or ‘dvijas’ (twice born). Use of Sanskrit as the medium of instruction distanced the common people from education. Education became the privilege of only the uppermost sections of society. 

18.2 AIMS OF EDUCATION 

In ancient India, education was a matter of individual concern. The aim of education was the development of pupil’s overall personality. With this view of education as a process of one’s inner growth and self-fulfïlment, techniques, rules :and methods were evolved. It was believed that the development of a person meant, primarily, the training of his/her mind as the instrument of acquiring knowledge. This knowledge would enhance his/her creative capacity. The thinking principle ‘manana shakti’was reckoned higher than the subject of thinking. Thus, the primary subject of education was the mind itself. 

18.3 SUBJECTS 

Knowledge of applied sciences like metallurgy, baked bricks, glazing, measurement of areas and volumes were known to people in ancient India. The scientific system of medicine was developed in the post-Vedic period. Medicine became a subject at centres of learning like Takshila and Varanasi. The ‘Charak Samhita’on medicine and ‘Sushruta Samhita’ on surgery were two important works in this field. Sushruta considered surgery as “the highest division of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. Mathematics or ‘ganita’ included Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy and Astrology. Interest in Arithmetic was due to its use in trade and commerce. ‘Aryabhattiya’, by Aryabhatta was a major contribution in the field of mathematics. Astronomy was overshadowed by Brahmanical superstitions. ‘Surya Siddhanta’, a work on astronomy consisted of the description of the instruments and the methods of observation which were neither accurate nor impressive. The bronze and copper remains from the time of Indus Valley Civilization are indicative of the development of chemistry and metallury. The processes of leather tanning, dyeing, and fermenting were devised during this period. 

18.4 LANGUAGE 

Sanskrit enjoyed a position of privilege in ancient India. It served as a medium of Brahmanical education. Sanskrit was the lingua franca of the educated upper castes as well as the Hindu rulers and courtiers. ‘Prakrit’ as a language developed with the rise of Buddhism. It became the language of the masses. Ashoka, the Mauryan king used ‘Prakrit’ in his edicts. It is interesting to note that in Sanskrit drama, women and the humble characters were made to speak in formalised Prakrit. Pali was one of the early variants of Prakrit. Most of the Buddhist canonical writings are in Prakrit and Pali, though some Sanskrit literature was also in circulation. Another language ‘Apabhramsha’ was used by Jain writers in Gujarat and Rajasthan for the composition of poetry. The Dravidian languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malyalam were in use in the southern parts of India. They found expression in the literature of this period as well. 

The best example of ancient India’s advancement was the university of Nalanda. Hiuen Tsang a famous Chinese traveller records Nalanda University as a post graduate university for advanced study and research. Nalanda was also famous for its ‘Schools of Discussion” as noted by the students who had their own hostels. King Balaputradeva constructed a temple for the students of Java who came to study at Nalanda. 

18.5 EDUCATION IN THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD 

With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, Islamic system of education was introduced. Education in medieval India was designed on the lines of the tradition of education developed under the Abbasids of Baghdad. As a result, scholars from countries like Samarqand, Bukhara and Iran looked up to the Indian scholars for guidance. Amir Khusrau, an exemplary personality, not only developed the skill of writing prose and poetry but also devised a new language which suited the local conditions. Some contemporary historians like Minhaj- us-Siraj, Ziauddin Barani and Afif have written about Indian scholarship. 

The institutions that provided school education were known as ‘makhtabs’, while those of higher learning were called ‘madrasas’. The ‘makhtabs’ were generally run by public donations while ‘Madrasas’ were maintained by the rulers and nobles. There were six different types of institutions: (i) those established and maintained by nobles and rulers, (ii) those which were started by individual scholars with the help of state assistance or donations, (iii) those that were attached to the mosques, (iv) those that were attached to the tombs, (v) those that were started and maintained by individual scholars, and (vi) those that were attached to the Sufi hospices. The famous ‘madrasas’ were the Muizzi, the Nasiri and the Firuzi madrasas in Delhi, Mohammed Gawani’s madrasa in Bidar and Abul Fazl’s madrasa in Fatehpur Sikri. The Sirat-i-figuz Shahi gives a list of 14 subjects that were taught in the Madarsas like Jurisprudence or Dirat which was a method of recitation, punctuation and vocalization of the text Quran etc. 

The main feature of the Muslim educational system was that it was traditional in spirit and theological in content. The curriculum was broadly divided into two categories: the traditional (Manqulat) and the rational (Maqulat) sciences. Traditions, law and history and literature came under the traditional sciences. Logic, philosophy, medicine, mathematics and astronomy came under rational sciences. Later, rational sciences came to be emphasized more than the traditional sciences. Traditional subjects dominated education from the time of Iltutmish (1211-36) till the reign of Sikander Lodi (1489-1517). The scenario started changing from the time of Sikander Lodi when he invited the brothers Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azizullah from Multan to Delhi. They introduced the study of philosophy and logic in the curriculum. 

The Mughal period made immense contribution in the field of learning and education. The Mughal emperors had great love for learning and they contributed more in the field of spreading education through Pathshalas, Vidyapeeths, Makatabs and Madarsas. Akbar gave grants to educational institutions. He started a College near Jama Masjid. At that time, education was not a state subject. Generally the temples and mosques were the centre of elementary education. They were dependent on the donations given by rulers, rich men and donors. Sanskrit and Persian were taught in temples and mosques. There was no provision for women’s education. The women of the royal and rich families got education at home. 

The Mughal rulers were great patrons of learning and literature. This period saw the rise of Urdu as a language which came out of a long contact between Persian and Hindi i.e. the Turks and the Indians. Babar wrote his own biography known as Tazuk-i-Babari. The Mughal Emperor Humayun introduced the study of mathematics, astronomy and geography in the ‘madrasas’ in Delhi. This helped in reducing the bias in the existing education system. Many Hindus took to learning Persian and a number of translations from Sanskrit to Persian were made. Akbar added subjects like accountancy, public administration, geometry and built a workshop near his palace. He personally supervised the workshop. Akbar’s attempt to introduce secular and scientific system of education was not liked by the orthodox sections. Akbar’s efforts ushered in a change which continued for centuries. In the eighteenth century some nobles were against the introduction of Western methods in education which involved inquiry, observation, investigation and conducting experiment. Memorising, discussing and writing out the lessons were the basis of instruction in the Muslim ‘madrasas’. 

Akbar patronised many scholars such as Abul Fazal, Faizi, Raja Todar Mal, Birbal and Rahim. They were among the nine gems of his court who helped in spreading culture and education.

18.6 EDUCATION IN THE MODERN PERIOD 

18.6.1 Eighteenth Century: The Beginning of Modern Period 

As in other aspects of social life in India, many of the traditional features of the preceeding centuries had continued in the field of education. The old famous centres of higher learning  like those at Taxila, Nalanda, Vikramshila near Bhagalpur, at Jagaddal in North Bengal, Vallabhi at Kathiawar and Kanchi in the South had disappeared long ago. Islamic education, on the other hand flourished subsequently under the patronage of rulers and nobles. Still the majority of the Hindu population continued to receive education in their time honoured institutions and with the growth of vernacular literature they studied their classical works. ‘There is not country’ wrote Thomas in 1891 ‘where the love of learning had so early an origin or has exercised so lasting and powerful influence’. According to him ‘The English found in India, a widespread style of elementary education and higher education, of which the former was mainly practical while the latter mainly literary, philosophical and religious. 

For about 150 years, the British were involved in trade and conquest in India. So they maintained a distance from all kinds of cultural activities including education. The beginning of oriental scholarship was made by Warren Hastings in 1781 when he started the Calcutta Madrasa. His endeavour was primarily due to administrative reasons. Eleven years later, in 1792, Jonathan Duncan, a Resident of Varanasi started a Sanskrit college to educate native Hindus to assist the Europeans.