14. Science and Technology in India
Like people in any other part of the world Indians too, have a rich legacy of scientific ideas. A desire to now the unknown, accompanied with experimentation and observation have always generated scientific temper. This has led to the assumption that truth lay in the real world with all its diversity and complexity. It has been the responsibility of scientists to unravel the mystery behind the truth and utilise available resources for the progress of humanity. 1n the following pages you will be reading about this continuous search for knowledge and truth leading to discoveries and inventions and their application in day-to-day life in India.
14.1 DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA
Mathematics has been called by the general name of Ganita which includes Arithmetic’s, Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy and Astrology. Arithmetic is called by several names such as Pattin Ganita (calculations on board), Anka Ganita (calculations with numerals). Geometry is called Rekha Ganita (line works) and Algebra, Bija Ganita (seed analysis), Astronomy and Astrology are included in the term Jyotisa.
India has a rich heritage of science and technology. The dependence on nature could be overcome by developments in science. In ancient India, religion and science worked in close proximity. Let us find out about the developments in the different branches of science in the ancient period.
Astronomy
Astronomy made great progress. The movement of planets came to be emphasized and closely observed. Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy but the more basic problem was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). His Aryabhattiya is a concise text containing 121 verses. It contains separate sections on astronomical definitions, methods of determining the true position of the planets, description of the movement of the sun and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses. The reason he gave for eclipse was that the earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis and when the shadow of the earth fell on the moon, it caused Lunar eclipse and when the shadow of the moon fell on the earth, it caused Solar eclipse. On the contrary, the orthodox theory explained it as a process where the demon swallowed the planet. All these observations have been described by Varahamihira in Panch Siddhantika which gives the summary of five schools of astronomy present in his time. Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it as cientific outlook which became a guideline for later astronomers. Astrology and horoscope were studied in ancient India. Aryabhatta’s theories showed a distinct departure from astrology which stressed more on beliefs than scientific explorations.
Mathematics
The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge of measurement and geometry. By third century AD mathematics developed as a separate stream of study. Indian mathematics is supposed to have originated from the Sulvasutras.
Apastamba in second century BC, introduced practical geometry involving acute angle, obtuse angle and right angle. This knowledge helped in the construction of fire altars where the kings offered sacrifices. The three main contributions in the field of mathematics were the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The notations and the numerals were carried to the West by the Arabs. These numerals replaced the Roman numerals. Zero was discovered in India in the second century BC. Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa Siddhanta is the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number, hence, Brahmagupta is considered as the man who found zero. He gave rules of using zero with other numbers. Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of Trignometry.
The Surya Siddhanta is a very famous work. Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita of the sixth century AD is another pioneering work in the field of astronomy. His observation that the moon rotated around the earth and the earth rotated around the sun found recognition and later discoveries were based on this assertion. Mathematics and astronomy together ignited interest in time and cosmology. These discoveries in astronomy and mathematics became the cornerstones for further research and progress.
Medicine
Diseases, cure and medicines were mentioned for the first time in the Atharva Veda. Fever, cough, consumption, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy and seizure are the diseases mentioned. The diseases are said to be caused by the demons and spirits entering one’s body. The remedies recommended were replete with magical charms and spells.
From 600 BC began the period of rational sciences. Takshila and Taranasi emerged as centres of medicine and learning. The two important texts in this field are Charaksamhita by Charak and Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta. How important was their work can be understood from the knowledge that it reached as far as China, Central Asia through translations in various languages.
The plants and herbs used for medicinal purposes have been mentioned in Charaksamhita. Surgery came to be mentioned as a separate stream around fourth century AD. Sushruta was a pioneer of this discipline. He considered surgery as “the highest division of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He mentions 121 surgical instruments. Along with this he also mentions the methods of operations, bone setting, cataract and so on. The surgeons in ancient India were familiar with plastic surgery (repair of noses, ears and lips). Sushruta mentions 760 plants. All parts of the plant roots, barks, flowers, leaves etc. were used. Stress was laid on diet (e.g. salt free diet for nephrites). Both the Charaksamhita and the Sushrutsamhita became the predecessors of the development of Indian medicine in the later centuries. However, surgery suffered in the early medieval time since the act of disecting with a razor became the work of a barber.
Metallurgy
The glazed potteries and bronze and copper artefacts found in the Indus valley excavations point towards a highly developed metallurgy. The vedic people were aware of fermenting grain and fruits, tanning leather and the process of dyeing.
By the first century AD, mass production of metals like iron, copper, silver, gold and of alloys like brass and bronze were taking place. The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex is indicative of the high quality of alloying that was being done. Alkali and acids were produced and utilised for making medicines. This technology was also used for other crafts like producing dyes and colours. Textile dyeing was popular. The Ajanta frescoes reflect on the quality of colour. These paintings have survived till date.
A two metre high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (Near Bhagalpur)
Geography
The constant interaction between man and nature forced people to study geography. Though the people were clear about their own physical geography, that of China and also the Western countries, they were unaware of their position on the earth and the distances with other countries. Indians also contributed to shipbuilding. In the ancient period, voyages and navigation was not a familiar foray for the Indians. However, Lothal, a site in Gujarat has the remains of a dockyard proving that trade flourished in those days by sea. In the early medieval period with the development of the concept of tirtha and tirtha yatra, a vast mass of geographical information was accumulated. They were finally compiled as parts of Puranas. In many cases separate sthala purana was also compiled.
14.2 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
During the medieval period (eleventh to eighteenth century) science and technology in India developed along two lines: one concerned with the already charted course of earlier traditions and the other with the new influences which came up as a result of Islamic and European influence. The maktabs and madrasas came into existence that followed a set curricular. These institutions used to receive royal patronage. The two brothers, Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azzizullah, specialists in Rational Sciences (Magulat), headed the madrasas at Sambhal and Agra. Learned men from Arabia, Persia and Central Asia were invited to teach in these madrasas.
A large number of karkhana (workshops) were maintained by the kings and the nobles to supply provisions, stores and equipment to royal household and government departments. The karkhanas not only worked as manufacturing agencies but also served as centres for technical and vocational training to young men. The karkhanas trained and turned out artisans and craftsmen in different branches, who later set up their own independent karkhanas (workshops).
Muslim rulers attempted to reform the curriculum of primary schools. Some important subjects like arithmetic, mensuration, geometry, astronomy, accountancy, public administration and agriculture were included in the course of studies for primary education. Though special efforts were made by the rulers to carry out reforms in education, yet science did not make much headway during this period. Efforts were made to seek a kind of synthesis between the Indian traditional scientific culture and the prevalent approach to science in other countries.
Biology
Hamsadeva compiled Mrgapasisastra in the thirteenth century which gives a general, though not always scientific account of some of the beasts and birds of hunting. The medieval rulers as warriors and hunters, kept animals such as horses, dogs, cheetahs and falcons. Animals, both domesticated and wild, existed in their menageries. Akbar showed special interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals, elephants and horses. Jahangir, in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, recorded his observations and experiments of weeding and hybridisation. He described about thirty-six species of animals.
His court artists, specially Mansur, produced elegant and accurate portraiture of animals, some of which are still preserved in several museums and private collections.
As a naturalist, Jahangir was interested in the study of plants and his court artists in their floral portraiture describe some fifty-seven plants.
Mathematics
Brahmagupta the great 7th century mathematician has given a description of negative numbers as debts and positive numbers as fortunes, which shows that ancient Bharatiyas knew the utility of mathematics for practical trade.
In the early medieval period the two outstanding works in mathematics were Ganitasara by Sridhara and Lilavati by Bhaskara. Ganitasara deals with multiplication, division, numbers, cubes, square roots, mensuration and so on. Ganesh Daivajna produced Buddhivilasini, a commentary on Lilavati, containing a number of illustrations. In 1587, Lilavati was translated into Persian by Faidi. Bija Ganita was translated by Ataullah Rashidi during Shah Jahan’s reign. Nilkantha Jyotirvid, a courtier of Akbar, compiled Tajik, introducing a large number of Persian technical terms. Akbar ordered the introduction of mathematics as a subject of study, among others in the educational system. Bahauddin- Amuli, Nasiruddin Tusi, Arraq and Al-Kashi made valuable contributions to this field. Nasiruddin Tusi, the founder director of the Maragha observatory, was recognised as an authority.
Chemistry
Before the introduction of writing paper, ancient literature was preserved generally on palm leaves in South India and birch-bark (bhoj-patra) in Kashmir and other northern regions of the country. Use of paper began during the Medieval period. Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, Mysore were well-known centres of paper production. During Tipu’s time, Mysore possessed a paper-making factory, producing a special type of paper that had a gold surface. The paper making technique was more or less the same throughout the country, differing only in preparation of the pulp from different raw materials.
The Mughals knew the technique of production of gunpowder and its use in guns. Indian craftsmen learnt the technique and evolved suitable explosive compositions. They were aware of the method of preparation of gunpowder using saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal in different ratios for use in different types of guns. The principal types of fireworks included those which pierced through air (rockets), produced sparks of fire, blazed with various colours and ended with explosion. Tuzuk-i--Baburi gives an account of the casting of cannons. The melted metal was made to run into the mould till full and then cooled down. Besides explosives, other items were also produced. Ain-i-Akbari speaks of the ‘Regulations of the Perfume Office of Akbar’. The attar of roses was a popular perfume, the discovery of which is attributed to the mother of Nurjehan. Mention may also be made here of the glazed tiles and pottery during the period.
Astronomy
In astronomy, a number of commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical notions appeared. Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Delhi were the main observatories. Firoz Shah Tughaq established observation posts at Delhi. Firoz Shah Bahmani under Hakim Hussain Gilani and Syed Muhammad Kazimi set up an observatory in Daulatabad. Both lunar and solar calendars were in use.
Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Firoz Shah developed an astronomical instrument called Yantraja. Parameshvara and Mahabhaskariya were famous families of astronomers and almanac-makers. Nilakantha Somasutvan produced a commentary on Aryabhatta. Kamalakar studied the Islamic ideas on astronomy. He was an authority on Islamic knowledge as well. Jaipur Maharaja, Sawai Jai Singh II set five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Jaipur.
Medicine
There was an attempt to develop specialised treatises on different diseases. Pulse and urine examinations were conducted for diagnostic purposes. The Sarangdhara Samhita recommends use of opium for medicines. The rasachikitsa system, dealt principally with a host of mineral medicines including metallic preparations. The Tuhfat-ul-Muminin was a Persian treatise written by Muhammad Munin in seventeenth century which discusses the opinions of physicians.
The Unani Tibb is an important system of medicine which flourished in India in the medieval period. Ali-bin-Rabban summarized the whole system of Greek medicine as well as the Indian medical knowledge in the book Firdausu-Hikmat. The Unani medicine system came to India along with the Muslims around the eleventh century and soon found a congenial environment for its growth. Hakim Diya Muhammad compiled a book, Majiny- e Diyae, incorporating the Arabic, Persian and Ayurvedic medical knowledge. Firoz Shah Tughlaq wrote a book, Tibbe Firozshahi. The Tibbi Aurangzebi, dedicated to Aurangzeb, is based on Ayurvedic sources. The Musalajati-Darashikohi of Nuruddin Muhammad, dedicated to Darashikoh deals with Greek medicine.
Agriculture
In the medieval period, the pattern of agricultural practices was more or less the same as that in early and early ancient India. Some important changes, however, were brought about by the foreigners such as the introduction of new crops, trees and horticultural plants. The principal crops were wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, sugarcane and indigo. The Western Ghats continued to yield black pepper of good quality and Kashmir maintained its tradition for saffron and fruits. Ginger and cinnamon from Tamilnadu, cardamom, sandalwood and coconuts from Kerala were becoming increasingly popular. Tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew and pineapple were the important new plants which made India their home in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The region of Malwa and Bihar were also well known for the production of opium from the poppy plants. Improved horticultural methods were adopted with great success. The systematic mango grafting was introduced by the Jesuits of Goa in the middle of the sixteenth century.