VI The Art of Dream Interpretation(1)
梦解析的艺术(1)
To understand the language of dreams is an art which, like any other art, requires knowledge, talent, practice and patience. Talent, the effort to practice what one has learned, and patience cannot be acquired by reading a book. But the knowledge necessary to understand dream language can be conveyed, and to do this is the purpose of this chapter. However, since this book is written for the layman and the beginning student, this chapter will attempt to give only relatively simple dream examples as illustrations of the most significant principles for the interpretation of dreams.
From our theoretical considerations about the meaning and function of the dream, it follows that one of the most significant and often most difficult problems in the interpretation of dreams is that of recognizing whether a dream is expressive of an irrational wish and its fulfillment, of a plain fear or anxiety, or of an insight into inner or outer forces and occurrences. Is the dream to be understood as the voice of our lower or our higher self? How do we go about finding out in which key to interpret the dream?
Other questions relevant to the technique of dream interpretation are: Do we need the associations of the dreamer, as Freud postulates, or can we understand the dream without them? Furthermore, what is the relation of the dream to recent events, particularly to the dreamer’s experiences on the day before he had a dream, and what is its relationship to the dreamer’s total personality, the fears and wishes rooted in his character?
I should like to begin with a simple dream which illustrates the fact that no dream deals with meaningless material:
A young woman, interested in the problems of dream interpretation, tells her husband at the breakfast table: “Tonight I had a dream which shows that there are dreams which have no meaning. The dream was simply that I saw myself serving you strawberries for breakfast.” The husband laughs and says: “You only seem to forget that strawberries are the one fruit which I do not eat.”
It is obvious that the dream is far from being meaningless. She offers her husband something, she knows he cannot accept and is of no use or pleasure to him. Does this dream indicate that she is a frustrating personality who likes to give the very thing that is not acceptable? Does it show a deep-seated conflict in the marriage of these two people, caused by her character but quite unconscious in her? Or is her dream only the reaction to a disappointment caused by her husband the day before, and an expression of a fleeting anger she got rid of in the revenge contained in the dream? We cannot answer these questions without knowing more about the dreamer and her marriage, but we do know that the dream is not meaningless.
The following dream is more complicated though not really difficult to understand:
A lawyer, twenty-eight years of age, wakes up and remembers the following dream which he later reports to the analyst: “I saw myself riding on a white charger, reviewing a large number of soldiers. They all cheered me wildly.”
The first question the analyst asks his patient is rather general: “What comes to your mind?” “Nothing,” the man answers. “The dream is silly. You know that I dislike war and armies, that I certainly would not want to be a general.” And in addition, “I also would not like to be the center of attention and to be stared at, cheering or no cheering, by thousands of soldiers. You know from what I told you about my professional problems how difficult it is for me even to plead a case in court with everybody looking at me.”
The analyst answers: “Yes, that is all quite true; but it does not do away with the fact that this is your dream, the plot you have written and in which you assigned yourself a role. In spite of all obvious inconsistencies, the dream must have some meaning and must make some sense. Let us begin with your associations to the dream contents. Focus on the dream picture, yourself and the white charger and the troops cheering—and tell me what comes to your mind when you see this picture?”
“Funny, I now see a picture which I used to like very much when I was fourteen or fifteen. It is a picture of Napoleon, yes indeed, on a white charger, riding in front of his troops. It is very similar to what I saw in the dream, except in that picture the soldiers did not cheer.”
“This memory is certainly interesting. Tell me more about your liking for that picture and your interest in Napoleon.”
“I can tell you a lot about it, but I find it embarrassing. Yes, when I was fourteen or fifteen I was rather shy. I was not very good in athletics and kind of afraid of tough kids. Oh, yes, now I remember an incident from that period which I had completely forgotten. I liked one of the tough kids very much and wanted to become his friend. We had hardly talked with each other, but I hoped that he would like me, too, if we would get better acquainted. One day—and it took a lot of courage—I approached him and asked him whether he would not like to come to my house; that I had a microscope and could show him a lot of interesting things. He looked at me for a moment, then he suddenly started to laugh and laugh and laugh. ‘You sissy, why don’t you invite some of your sisters’ little friends?’ I turned away, choking with tears. It was at that time I read voraciously about Napoleon; I collected pictures of him and indulged in daydreams of becoming like him, a famous general admired by the whole world. Was he not small of stature, too? Was he not also a shy youngster like myself? Why could I not become like him? I spent many hours daydreaming; hardly ever concretely about the means to this end but always about the achievement. I was Napoleon, admired, envied, and yet magnanimous and ready to forgive my detractors. When I went to college I had got over my hero worship and my Napoleon daydreams; in fact I have not thought of this period for many years and certainly have never spoken to anyone about it. It kind of embarrasses me even now to talk to you about it.”
“‘You’ forgot about it, but the other you, that which determines many of your actions and feelings, well hidden from your daytime awareness, is still longing to be famous, admired, to have power. That other you spoke up in your dream last night; but let us see why just last night. Tell me what happened yesterday that was of importance to you.”
“Nothing at all; it was a day like any other. I went to the office, worked to gather legal material for a brief, went home and had dinner, went to a movie and went to bed. That’s all.”
“That does not seem to explain why you rode on a white charger in the night. Tell me more about what went on at the office.”
“Oh, I just remember… but this can’t have anything to do with the dream… well, I’ll tell you anyway. When I went to see my boss—the senior partner of the firm—for whom I collected the legal material he discovered a mistake I had made. He looked at me critically and remarked, ‘I am really surprised—I had thought you would do better than that.’ For the moment I was quite shocked—and the thought flashed through my mind that he would not take me into the firm as a partner later on as I had hoped he would do. But I told myself that this was nonsense, that anyone could make a mistake, that he had just been irritable and that the episode had no bearing on my future. I forgot about the incident during the afternoon.”
“How was your mood then? Were you nervous or kind of depressed?”
“No, not at all. On the contrary, I was just tired and sleepy. I found it difficult to work and was very glad when the time came to leave the office.”
“The last thing of importance during that day, then, was your seeing the movie. Will you tell me what it was?”
“Yes, it was the film Juarez, which I enjoyed very much. In fact, I cried quite a bit.”
“At what point?”
“First at the description of Juarez’s poverty and suffering and then when he had been victorious; I hardly remember a movie which moved me so much.”
“Then you went to bed, fell asleep, and saw yourself on the white charger, cheered by the troops. We understand a little better now why you had this dream, don’t we? As a boy you felt shy, awkward, rejected. We know from our previous work that this had a great deal to do with your father, who was so proud of his success but so incapable of being close to you and of feeling—to say nothing of showing—affection and of giving encouragement. The incident you mentioned today, the rejection by the tough kid, was only the last straw, as it were. Your self-esteem had been badly damaged already, and this episode added one more element to make you certain that you could never be your father’s equal, never amount to anything, that you would always be rejected by the people you admired. What could you do? You escaped into fantasy where you achieved the very things you felt incapable of achieving in real life. There, in the world of fantasy where nobody could enter and where nobody could disprove you, you were Napoleon, the great hero, admired by thousands and—what is perhaps the most important thing—by yourself. As long as you could retain these fantasies you were protected from the acute pains that your feeling of inferiority caused you while you were in contact with the reality outside yourself. Then you went to college. You were less dependent on your father, felt some satisfaction in your studies, felt that you could make a new and better beginning. Moreover, you felt ashamed of your ‘childish’ daydreams, so you put them away; you felt you were on the way to being a real man. … But, as we have seen, this new confidence was somewhat deceptive. You were terribly frightened before every examination; you felt that no girl could really be interested in you if there was any other young man around; you were always afraid of your boss’s criticism This brings us to the day of the dream. The thing you tried so hard to avoid had happened—your boss had criticized you; you began to feel again the old feeling of inadequacy, but you shoved it away; you felt tired instead of feeling anxious and sad. Then you saw a movie which touched upon your old daydreams, the hero who became the admired savior of a nation after he had been the despised, powerless youngster. You pictured yourself, as you had done in your adolescence, as the hero, admired, cheered. Don’t you see that you have not really given up the old retreat into fantasies of glory; that you have not burned the bridges that lead you back to that land of fantasy, but start to go back there whenever reality is disappointing and threatening? Don’t we see that this fact, however, helps to create the very danger you are so afraid of, that of being childish, not an adult, not being taken seriously by grown-up men—and by yourself?”
This dream is very simple, and for this reason permits us to study the various elements that are significant in the art of dream interpretation. Is this a dream of wish-fulfillment or is it an insight? The answer can hardly be in doubt: this is the fulfillment of an irrational wish for fame and recognition which the dreamer had developed as a reaction to severe blows to his self-confidence. The irrational nature of this wish is indicated by the fact that he does not choose a symbol which in reality could be meaningful and attainable. He is not really interested in military matters, has not made and certainly will not make the slightest effort to become a general. The material is taken from the immature daydreaming of an insecure, adolescent boy.
What role do his associations play in the understanding of this dream? Could we understand it even if we had no associations from the dreamer? The symbols used in the dream are universal symbols. The man on the white charger, cheered by troops, is a universally understood symbol of splendor, power, admiration (universally, of course, in the restricted sense of being common to some cultures but not necessarily to all). From his associations about his Napoleon worship, we gain further insight into the choice of this specific symbol and into its psychological function. If we did not have this association, we could only say that the dreamer had a fantasy of fame and power. In connection with his adolescent Napoleon worship, we understand that this dream symbolism is the revival of an old fantasy which had the function of compensating for a feeling of defeat and powerlessness.
We recognize also the significance of the connection of the dream and significant experiences during the preceding day. Consciously the dreamer pushed out of his mind the feeling of disappointment and apprehension at his boss’s criticism. The dream shows us that the criticism had hit him again at his sensitive spot, the fear of inadequacy and failure, and had reproduced the old avenue of escape, the daydream of fame. This daydream was always latently present, but it became manifest only—and thus appeared in a dream—because of an experience which actually occurred in reality. There is hardly any dream which is not a reaction—often a delayed reaction—to a significant experience of the preceding day. In fact, often only the dream shows that an occurrence, which consciously was not experienced as being significant, actually was important, and indicates what its importance consisted of. A dream, in order to be fully understood, must be understood in terms of the reaction to a significant event which happened before the dream occurred.
We find here still another connection—though of a different kind—with an experience of the preceding day: the movie that contained material similar to that of the dreamer’s daydreams. It is startling again and again to see how the dream succeeds in weaving different threads into one fabric. Would the dreamer not have had this dream had he not seen the movie? It is impossible to answer this question. Undoubtedly, the experience with his boss and the deeply engraved grandiose fantasy could have been sufficient to produce this dream; but perhaps the movie was necessary to revive the grandiose fantasy so articulately. But it is not important to answer the question, even if it could be answered. What is important is to understand the texture of the dream in which past and present, character and realistic event, are woven together into a design which tells us a great deal about the motivation of the dreamer, the dangers he must be aware of, and the aims he must set himself in his effort to achieve happiness.
The following dream is another illustration of dreams to be understood in Freud’s sense of wish-fulfillment. The dreamer, a man, thirty years old, unmarried, suffered for many years from severe attacks of anxiety, an overwhelming sense of guilt, and almost continuous suicidal fantasies. He felt guilty because of what he called his badness, his evil strivings; accused himself of wanting to destroy everything and everybody, of the wish to kill children, and in his fantasies suicide seemed the only way to protect the world from his evil presence and to atone for his badness. There is another aspect of these fantasies, though: after his sacrificial death he would be reborn into an all-powerful, all-loved person, vastly superior in power, wisdom and goodness to all other men. The dream he had at an early period of analytic work was as follows:
I am walking up a mountain; right and left beside the road are the bodies of dead men. None is alive. When I arrive at the top of the mountain, I find my mother sitting there; I am suddenly a very small child and am sitting on my mother’s lap.
The dreamer woke from his dream with a feeling of fright. At the time of his dream, he was so tortured by anxiety that he could not associate with a single part of the dream nor discover any specific event of the preceding day. But the meaning of the dream is transparent if we consider the thoughts and fantasies the dreamer presented before the time of this dream. He is the older son, a younger brother having been born a year after him. The father, an authoritarian, strict minister, had little love for the older boy—or for anyone else, for that matter; his only contact with his son was to teach, scold, admonish, ridicule and punish. The child was so afraid of him that he believed his mother when she told him that had it not been for her intervention his father would have killed him. The mother was very different from the father: a pathologically possessive woman, disappointed in her marriage, with no interest in anyone or anything except the possession of her children. But she had fastened herself particularly on this first-born son. She frightened him by telling about dangerous ghosts, then offered herself as his protectress who would pray for him, guide him, make him strong, so that one day he would even be stronger than his dreaded father. When the little brother was born, the boy was apparently profoundly disturbed and jealous. He himself had no memories of that period, but relatives reported unmistakable expressions of intense jealousy shortly after the brother’s birth.
This jealousy might not have developed to such dangerous dimensions as it did after two or three years had it not been for the attitude of his father who picked the newborn baby as his. Why, we do not know; perhaps because of the striking physical likeness to himself or perhaps because his wife was still so preoccupied with her favorite son. By the time our dreamer was four or five years old, the rivalry between the two brothers was already in full swing and it increased from year to year. The antagonism between the parents was reflected and fought out in the antagonism between the two brothers. At that age the foundations of the dreamer’s later severe neurosis were laid: intense hostility against the brother, a passionate wish to prove that he was superior to the brother, intense fear of the father, greatly increased by the guilt feeling because of his hate against brother and the hidden wish to be stronger than the father eventually. This feeling of anxiety, guilt and powerlessness was increased by his mother. As already mentioned, she instilled him with even more fear. But she offered him also an alluring solution: if he remained her baby, possessed by her and with no other interest, she would make him great, superior to the hated rival. This was the basis for his daydreams of greatness as well as for the tie that kept him closely bound to his mother—a state of childish dependency and a refusal to accept his role as a grown-up man.
Against this background the dream is easily understandable. “He climbs up the hill”—his ambition to be superior to everybody, the goal of his strivings. “There are many male bodies—every one is dead—none is alive.” The fulfillment of his wish for elimination of all rivals—since he feels so powerless he can be safe from them only if they are dead. “When he arrives at the top”—when he achieves the goal of his wishes – “he finds his mother there, and he is sitting on her lap”—he is reunited with his mother, her baby, getting her strength and protection. All rivals are done away with—he is alone with her, free, without reason for fear. Yet he wakes with a feeling of terror. The very fulfillment of his irrational wishes is a threat to his rational, grownup personality, which is striving for health and happiness. The price of the fulfillment of infantile desires is that he remain the baby, helplessly tied to and dependent on his mother, not permitted to think for himself or to love anyone else. The very fulfillment of his wishes is terrifying.
The difference between this dream and the previous one is considerable in one respect. The first dreamer is a shy, inhibited person, experiencing difficulties in living which spoil his happiness and weaken him. An insignificant incident like his boss’s criticism hurts him deeply and throws him back to early daydreams. On the whole, he functions normally and such an incident is needed to bring his grandiose fantasies back to his awareness in his sleep life. Our second dreamer is sicker. His whole life, in sleep and in waking, is obsessed by fear, guilt, and an intense longing to return to his mother. No particular incident is needed to produce the dream; almost any occurrence can serve because he experiences his life not in terms of reality but in the light of his early experiences.
In other respects the two dreams are similar. They represent the fulfillment of irrational desires, dating back to childhood, the first arousing satisfaction because of the wish’s compatibility with adult conventional aims (power, prestige), the second arousing anxiety because of its very incompatibility with any kind of adult life. Both dreams speak in universal symbols and can be understood without associations, although, in order to understand fully the significance of each dream, we need to know something about the dreamer’s personal history. But then, even if we knew nothing about the dreamers’ histories, we would get some idea about their characters from these dreams.
Here are two brief dreams, the text of which is similar and yet the meaning of each is different from that of the other. Both are dreams of a young homosexual. The first dream:
I see myself with a pistol in my hand. The barrel is strangely elongated.
The second dream:
I hold a long and heavy stick in my hand. It feels as if I were beating someone—although there is nobody else in the dream.
If we followed Freud’s theory, we would assume that both dreams express a homosexual wish, one time the pistol and the other time the stick symbolizing the male genital. When the patient was asked what came to his mind of the events of the preceding days, respectively, he reported two very different occurrences:
In the evening preceding the pistol dream he had seen another young man and had felt an intense sexual urge. Before falling asleep he had indulged in sexual fantasies with this young man as the object.
The discussion of the second dream, approximately two months later, elicited a rather different association. He had been furious with his college professor because he felt he had been treated unfairly. He was too timid to say anything to the professor but had an elaborate daydream of revenge in the period before falling asleep, which period was frequently devoted to daydreaming. Another association that came up in connection with the stick was the memory that a teacher whom he disliked thoroughly when he was ten had once whipped another boy with a stick. He had always been afraid of that teacher, and this very fear had prevented him from giving expression to his rage.
What does the symbol of the stick mean in the second dream? Is the stick also a sexual symbol? Does this dream express a well-hidden homosexual desire, the object of which is the college professor and perhaps, in his childhood, the hated teacher? If we assume that the events of the preceding day and especially the mood of the dreamer just before falling asleep are important clues for the symbolism of the dream, then we shall translate the symbols differently in spite of their apparent similarity.
The first dream followed a day in which the dreamer had homosexual fantasies, and the pistol with the elongated barrel must be assumed to symbolize a penis. It is not accidental though, that the sexual organ is represented by a weapon. This symbolic equation indicates something important about the psychic forces underlying the dreamer’s homosexual cravings. To him sexuality is an expression not of love but of a wish for domination and destruction. The dreamer, for reasons we need not discuss here, had always feared not being adequate as a male. Early guilt feelings because of masturbation, fears that he was thus harming his sexual organs, later fear that his penis was inferior in size to that of other boys, intense jealousy of men—all had combined in a wish for intimacy with men in which he could show his superiority and use his sexual organ as a powerful weapon.
The second dream had a quite different emotional background. There he was angry when falling asleep; he had been inhibited in expressing his anger; he was even inhibited in expressing his anger directly in his sleep by dreaming that he was beating the professor with the stick; he dreamed that he held the stick and had the feeling of beating “someone.” The particular choice of the stick as a symbol of anger was determined by the earlier experience with the hated teacher who beat the other boy; the present anger at the professor became blended with the past anger at the schoolteacher. The two dreams are interesting because they exemplify the general principle that similar symbols can have different meanings, and that the right interpretation depends on the state of mind that was predominant before the dreamer fell asleep and hence continued to exercise its influence during sleep.
Here follows a short dream which also represents a fulfillment of an irrational wish and is in extreme contrast to the feelings the dreamer is aware of:
The dreamer is an intelligent young man who came for analytic treatment because of a rather vague feeling of depression, although he functions “normally”—if the word “normal” is used in a superficial, conventional sense. He finished his studies two years before he began the analysis, and since then has worked in a position which corresponds with his interests and is favorable as far as conditions of work, salary, etc., are concerned. He is considered a good, even a brilliant worker. But this external picture is deceptive. He has a constant feeling of uneasiness, feels that he does not do as well as he could (which is true), feels depressed in spite of his apparent success. Particularly troublesome to him is his relationship to his boss, who tends to be somewhat authoritarian although within reasonable limits. The patient oscillates between attitudes of rebelliousness and submission. He often feels that unfair demands are made upon him even when this is not the case; he then tends to sulk or become argumentative; sometimes he makes mistakes unwittingly in the performance of such “forced labor.” On the other hand, he is over-polite, close to being submissive to his boss and other persons in authority; quite in contrast to his rebellious attitude, he over-admires his chief and is inordinately happy when praised by him. The constant alternation between these two attitudes causes quite a strain and aggravates the depressed mood. It must be added that the patient, who came from Germany after Hitler’s rise, was an ardent anti-Nazi; not just in the conventional sense of an anti-Nazi “opinion” but passionately and intelligently. This political conviction was perhaps freer from doubt than anything else he thought and felt. One can imagine the surprise and shock when one morning he remembered clearly and vividly this dream:
I sat with Hitler, and we had a pleasant and interesting conversation. I found him charming and was very proud that he listened with great attention to what I had to say.
When questioned as to what he did say to Hitler, he replied that he had not the faintest memory of the content of the conversation. Unquestionably this dream is the fulfillment of a wish. What is remarkable about it is that his wish is so utterly alien to his conscious thinking, and that it is presented in the dream in such undisguised form.
Surprising as this dream was for the dreamer at the moment, it is not quite so puzzling to us if we consider the total character structure of the dreamer, even though only based on the few data communicated here. His central problem is that of his attitude toward authority: he exhibits an alternation of rebelliousness and submissive admiration in his daily experience. Hitler stands for the extreme form of irrational authority, and the dream shows us clearly that, in spite of the dreamer’s hate against him, the submissive side is real and strong. The dream offers us a more adequate appreciation of the strength of submissive tendencies than the evaluation of the conscious material permits.
Does this dream mean that the dreamer is “really” pro-Nazi and that his hate against Hitler is “only” a conscious cover for his underlying feelings, which are the true ones? I raise this question because the dream permits us to discuss a problem of great significance for the interpretation of all dreams.
Freud’s answer to this question could be very illuminating. He would say that it is not really Hitler the patient is dreaming about. Hitler is a symbol for someone else; he stands for the young man’s hated and admired father. In the dream the patient uses, as it were, the convenient Hitler symbol to express feelings which belong not to the present but to the past, not to his existence as a grown-up person but to the encapsulated child in him. Freud would add that this is not different from the patients feelings toward his chief; they too, have nothing to do with the chief but are transferred from the patient’s father.
In a sense all this is quite true. The blend of rebelliousness and submissiveness came into existence and developed in the relationship to the patient’s father. But the old attitude still exists and is felt in reference to people with whom the patient comes in contact. He is still prone to rebel and to submit; he and not a child in him or “the unconscious” or whatever name we give to a person allegedly in him but not him. The past is significant—aside from a historical interest—only inasmuch as it is still present, and this is the case with the authority complex of our dreamer.
If we cannot simply say that it is not he but the child in him that wants to be on friendly terms with Hitler, does the dream not become a powerful witness against the dreamer? Does it not tell us that, in spite of all his protestations to the contrary, the dreamer “deep down” is a Nazi and only “superficially” believes himself to be Hitler’s enemy?
Such a view does not take into account an important factor in the interpretation of dreams, the quantitative element. Dreams are like a microscope through which we look at the hidden occurrences in our soul. A comparatively small trend in the complex texture of desires and fears may be shown in the dream as having the same magnitude as another one which is of much greater weight in the dreamer’s psychic system. A comparatively small annoyance with another person, for instance, may give rise to a dream in which the other person falls sick and thus is incapable of annoying us, and yet this would not mean that we have such a strong anger against that person that we “really” want him to be sick. Dreams give us a clue to the qualities of hidden desires and fears but not to their quantities; they permit of qualitative but not of quantitative analysis. In order to determine the quantity of a trend discovered qualitatively in a dream, other aspects must be taken into account: repetition of this or similar themes in other dreams, associations of the dreamer, his behavior in real life, or whatever else—like resistance to the analysis of such a trend—may help to get a better view of the intensity of desires and fears. Moreover, it is not even enough to consider the intensity of a desire; in order to judge its role and function in the whole psychic fabric, we must know those forces which have been built against this trend, combating it and defeating it as a motive for action. Even this is not enough. We must know whether these defense forces operating against irrational desires are mainly rooted in fear of punishment and loss of love, and to what extent they are based on the presence of constructive forces opposing the irrational, repressed forces; speaking more specifically, whether instinctive trends are curbed and repressed by fear and/or by the presence of stronger forces of love and tenderness. All such considerations are imperative if we are to go beyond the qualitative analysis of dreams to the quantitative inquiry into the weight of any irrational desire.
To return to the man who dreamed about Hitler. His dream does not prove that his anti-Nazi feelings were not true, or that they were not strong. But it does show that the dreamer was still coping with a desire to submit to irrational authority, even to one he hated intensely, wishing that he might find this authority not as obnoxious as he thought. Thus far I have presented only dreams to which Freud’s wish-fulfillment theory applies. They were all the hallucinatory fulfillment of irrational wishes, during sleep. They were understood with a great deal less associative material than Freud usually presents: this was done because in two dreams quoted earlier—that of the “Botanical Monograph” and the “Uncle” dream—we have seen illustrations of dreams in which associations play an indispensable role. Now I shall proceed to discuss some dreams which also are the fulfillment of wishes, but in which the wishes do not have the irrational character they had in the dreams quoted so far.